The Spiral of Silence Theory

Participating and being involved in a group is a normal part of life for almost every person in the world. People are always engaging and taking part in groups. Groups are formed in school, clubs, sports, church, work, etc. The spiral of silence theory is a theory that deals with the interaction of group members inside groups like these. According to an online communication theory workbook, the spiral of silence is a theory that explains why people often feel the need to conceal their opinions and views when they fall within the minority of a group. Another communication website, Changing Mind, adds to the communication theory workbooks definition by writing, “People will be unwilling to publicly express their opinion if they believe they are in the minority. They will also be more vocal if they believe they are apart of the majority.” However, this theory is not completely true. When moral issues arise in a group, minority group members will have the courage to speak out. There are a few past and present instances that show that when the minority is faced with issues that challenge their beliefs and morals, they stood up and spoke out. Examples that will be discussed which are contrary to the spiral of silence theory will include the American Revolution, Joseph Smith Jr., the three against Hitler, and a few minority groups.

The spiral of silence theory may hold true on issues or matters people feel are insignificant or not important enough to make a big deal out of. An example of this would be if a group of people where everyone does not know each other go out to dinner to a pizza place and order a pizza. If the majority of the group likes sausage, but the minority of one or two people does not, they may not speak up just because it may not be worth making a big deal out of it or drawing unwanted attention to themselves.


The American Revolution does not support the spiral of silence theory. The minority, American Patriots, sought for liberty and freedom. They were ruled by a tyrant who made laws that benefited himself more than the people as a whole. The majority of the people under the rule of England were content with how things were going. The Minority spoke up. Men like George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, etc. spoke up and took action.

One of the ways Thomas Paine spoke up and raised his views and opinion toward separating from England and the tyrannical rule of the King was by writing a pamphlet titled "Common Sense." Many Americans were not as adamant as Paine or had the same views, but he wrote this pamphlet for them, and to strengthen the minorities resolve to be free. In the introduction it says about "Common Sense," “Its message sought out the heart of what was politically, ethically, morally, and practically wrong with English control of and interference with the American colonies,” (Common Sense, v). Paine writes, “Wherefore, since nothing but blows will do, for God’s sake, let us come to a final separation…” (Common Sense, 25). Thus, the American Revolution, and Thomas Paine are examples that do not support the spiral of silence theory.

Another example that shows that the spiral of silence theory is not completely true is the life of Joseph Smith Jr. Joseph Smith was born December 23, 1805. At the age of 14, he had a desire to know which of all the churches were true. After pondering, investigating other churches, and studying the scriptures, Joseph Smith decided to pray and inquire of God to know which Church was true. While he was praying the heaven’s opened and Heavenly Father and His Son Jesus Christ appeared to him, and told him that no church on the earth had the complete truth, as well as many other things. After this vision he wrote, “I soon found, however, that my telling the story had excited a great deal of prejudice against me among professors of religion, and was the cause of great persecution, which continued to increase; though I was an obscure boy, only between fourteen and fifteen years of age…and though I was hated and persecuted for saying that I had seen a vision, yet it was true; and while they were persecuting me, reviling me, and speaking all manner of evil against me falsely for so saying…I had seen a vision; I knew it, and I knew that God knew it, and I could not deny it...” (Joseph Smith History, 50-51).

Smith, who was the minority, stood by what he believed. Even though most the people did not believe him and persecuted him, he did not deny his beliefs. Smith’s story also shows that even if someone is young, even if they are the only ones to believe, they will speak up for what they believe and be open with their opinions.

The spiral of silence theory was critiqued by an online communications website. In the website’s critique they write that the spiral of silence theory is pretty accurate, but not exactly accurate because it leaves room for exceptions. The website writes, “The Spiral of Silence theory is a scientific theory that for the most part is quite sound in situations in which opinions are not of great consequence. For example, if my opinion is a strong conviction and I am unwilling to bend in my beliefs then the theory may not apply to me to such an extent.”

One exception is the story of the three boys in Germany during WWII who took a stand, and spoke up against Hitler the Nazis for what they believed. Even though they could have easily kept quite, they did not. Their choice to speak out for what they believed meant they would suffer many hardships. They were imprisoned, tried, and eventually one of the boys was executed. Jeff Lindsay, a journalist, wrote in an article Three Against Hitler: Questions for Our Day, “When does one stand up against a tyrannical government, when speaking out may cost you your life?...Ruddi Wobbe’s (one of the three boys) experience as a young teenager…had the courage to speak out against the Hitler Regime…three Mormon teenagers who heroically stood up and spoke out against the Nazis.” This story is another example of when young men were faced with a moral issue they rose up with moral courage to speak out for what they believed. The

Today there are many minority groups that have repeatedly spoken up against other majority groups. In 1917 woman suffragists picketed the White House. There are also gay and lesbian protestors raising their voices for equal rights. According to Indiana University’s political science website they write, “The modern gay and lesbian movement was born in the New York City Stonewall riots of 1969. More than 30 years after what began as an angry and disorganized appeal for basic human dignity, gays and lesbians have entered the mainstream of American politics. Twice a year in Salt Lake City at Temple Square minority groups can be found with painted signs and protesting against the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Being in the minority does not seem to keep these groups from raising their voices against the mainstream opinions.

All over people who are in the minority are speaking out. When an individual or individual’s feel that their beliefs or moral values they hold dear are being challenged they almost always voice their opinion. In a survey taken by 20 students at Brigham Young University, 10 males and 10 females were asked what they would do if they were in a group such as a team and the conversation turned to topics concerning moral issues such as abortion, gay and lesbian rights, and church where the majority of the group had opposing views or beliefs than they did. 18 of the 20, 90%, said they would say something. This survey also brought up insightful ideas as to what influences people to speak up. All twenty surveyed were religious, and had a firm belief in their faith. All ten of the males said they would speak up. This could mean that religiousness and gender may influence whether a person will be more likely to speak up.

Nick Scano, one of the students, related a story that illustrates the principle that when someone has a firm moral belief they are more likely to speak up. He said that the other day when he was eating lunch with his friend Peter Anderson. Both he and Peter are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. They both believe that people should use clean language. While they were eating lunch a large group of construction workers were talking loudly and using unclean and vulgar language. “Peter stood up and walked over to their group, and asked them to please use cleaner language,” Scano said. “They were angry at first, but in the end they apologized and started using cleaner language.” Other research has been done to show that the spiral of silence theory is not always correct.

A journal by Jeffres, L., Neuendorf, K.A., and Atkin, D. detailed a field study in which Noel-Neumann’s spiral of silence theory was adapted to a case of racially polarized and highly publicized opinions on the O.J. Simpson trial. The article, entitled, “Spiral of Silence: Expressing Opinions When the Climate of Opinion is Unambiguous,” The results from the experiment concluded that the spiral of silence theory was not completely correct. The minority opinion holders were not afraid to speak out.

Other journal articles have been published about the spiral of silence theory. As well in another article written by William Harlow in a Journal titled, “Encyclopedia of Public Relations,” he writes, “Two points are important to make here. First, spiral of silence theory does not completely explain public behavior. Examples abound of products that have been marketed as the “rebel” or otherwise atypical choice…However, the…theory does not explain human behavior universally…Continuing research in this theory will likely further explore the question of how attitudes change over time and how this influences the willingness to speak publicly on any issue.” Research, such as this shows that the spiral of silence theory is not completely accurate.

In an online article, written by Jill Martin and Karin Peters from the University of South Carolina write about the spiral of silence theory according to others who have done research in this area. They write that Daniel Lasorsa, who wrote the article, “Political outspokenness: Factors working against the spiral of silence,” argues against the ideas made by Noelle-Neumann’s spiral of silence theory, “It is circumstances such as political interest, self-efficacy, firmness of views, and the use of the media that determine a person’s willingness to voice his opinions…” Martin and Peters continue to write, “Although the spiral of silence theory has been tested, analyzed, agreed with, and argued against many times since Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann introduced it to the world of mass communications, it will continue to be poked and prodded for years to come.”

The spiral of silence theory raises a few good points and has some truth to it, but when people are faced with moral issues that challenge their beliefs, convictions, views, they will be willing to speak out.

In summary and conclusion, the spiral of silence theory says that when people are in the minority they will be unwilling to publicly voice their opinions. However, through examples like the American Revolution, Joseph Smith Jr., the three against Hitler, minority group protestors, and various research, the spiral of silence theory fails. The spiral of silence theory may contain some truth, but is not completely true. In situations when moral values and firm beliefs are discussed even if the person or people are in the minority they will have the courage to speak up.

Works Cited

Jeffres, L., Neuendorf, K.A., Atkin, D. (1999). "Spiral of Silence: expressing opinions when the climate of opinion is unambiguous." Political Communication.

Retrieved October 31, 2007 http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/mass/spiral.htm

Retrieved October 31, 2007 http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/spirals_silence.htm

Retrieved November 24, 2007 http://com.hilbert.edu/students/papers/carolina-1999/1999spiral.html

Larsora, D. L. (1991). Political outspokenness: Factors working against the spiral of silence. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 68, 131–140.

Harlow, William. (2005). Spiral of Silence Theory. Encyclopedia of Public Relations,2, 804 – 806.

Paine, Thomas. (1997). Common Sense. Dover Publications. Mineola, New York. Retrieved

November 27, 2007 http://www.indiana.edu/~glbtpol/steve/y396syll.html Retrieved

November 27, 2007 http://www.timesandseasons.org/archives/001208.html Smith, Joseph. Joseph Smith – History. History of the Church, 1, Chapters 1 – 5.

Characteristics and Media Usage

Every person born receives certain characteristics that help them to interact and communicate with others. Not everyone is born with the same characteristics. These personal and individual characteristics also influence ones behavior as to why and how they use media. This means that because everyone has different characteristics everyone will use media in his own unique way that may be different than others. There are many different sources of media. According to a communications website, Oasis, it cites a few of these media sources as the television, radio, movies, print (magazines, newspapers, etc), internet, etc. I am different in my use of media than others because I use my time to use media that is more informative than entertaining, and that may not take as much time to consume compared to other media. An example is the newspaper. This difference comes from my personal characteristic that I like to learn and be informed, but I also do not like to waste a lot of time. These characteristics are different than others and directly affect how I use the media.

A theory developed to explain the correlation between individual characteristics and how these characteristics function in determining the type of media that will be consumed. This theory is called the entertainment, information, and time management theory. This is a personal theory theorized by Andrew Graff. It is a diagram that can be used to help explain the correlation between individual characteristics, and how each person uses media. This theory, the entertainment, information, and time management theory is best represented by a triangle. Picture a triangle, at one corner there is a label which says, “time,” and the other two corners labeled, “information,” and “entertainment.” This is a semi-elastic triangle where the time is the only point that moves. There is only so much time to be spent. Individual characteristics help to determine how that time is used to consume media. The “time” point can move toward the information point, toward the entertainment point, or somewhere in between or it can even be stretched out if the person spends their time not using the media to receive information of entertainment. Theoretically, the triangle is seeking for equilibrium, which is where the triangle is trying to stay in balance with all of the other corners, and will look like a nice and normal triangle. When the triangle is at equilibrium a person’s life is balanced between their use of time management on consuming information, and entertainment seeking. But not everyone’s desires and individual characteristics are the same. This means that each person’s individual triangle will always look different. This difference in shape of the triangle directly correlates with how a person uses the media.

If I was to use the entertainment, information, and time management theory to draw my personal triangle to view how I used my time in using informative and entertaining media, the time point would be more on the informative side than the entertaining side. I do not watch a lot of television or movies, but I do read the newspaper. By reading the newspaper I can find the articles I want fast. One of the reasons I use media this way is the time factor. According to the Darmouth University website, it says concerning time management, “Many students discover the need to develop or hone their time management skills when they arrive at college. Unlike high school where teachers frequently structured your assignments and classes filled your day, in college, you will have less in-class time, more outside of class work, and a great deal of freedom and flexibility.” I have felt that time is very important. It is not the same as being in high school where a student could come home after school and sports practice and watch television with their family for many hours. Because my desire to be informed is very strong I use media that would inform me more than entertain me.

Although I love to be informed I also enjoy entertainment, but due to personal characteristics I do not spend a lot of my time consuming entertainment media. On the other hand, my family is the complete opposite. They love entertainment. They live for entertainment. All of their time is spent being entertained. Because our characteristics differ, our triangles look differently, and we use media differently. For example, my family on average watches around three to five movies a week.

In conclusion, the media can be used in many different ways. People are different. One important variable that affects the way individuals use media is personal characteristics. Because individuals are unique, I do not fully believe in the powerful effect theories. According to an online website it describes one powerful effects theory called the magic bullet. The theory works, “by injecting the message directly into the “bloodstream” of the public, attempting to create a uniform thinking.” This means that one message works for all. People are not unique that if the message being sent out is persuasive to one person it will be persuasive to everyone. I believe that we are all different, and that the media does have an influence on us when we want it too.

Works Cited
Retrieved October 24, 2007, http://oasis.fiu.edu/Ch8/ch8page3.htm Retrieved October 24, 2007, http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/Speech/rccs/theory29.htm Retrieved October 24, 2007, http://www.dartmouth.edu/~acskills/success/time.html

Narrative Paradigm

Forrest Gump

People are influenced and persuaded in many different forms and ways. One way people are influenced according to Walter Fisher, a contemporary theorist, is through storytelling. In the text Communication Theories by John R. Baldwin, Stephen D. Perry, and Mary Anne Moffitt, says, “Fisher believed that human beings are by nature tellers of stories…that the world was best understood as a series of stories that compete for our attention and adherence.” They go on further to state that people process and evaluate the persuasiveness of competing stories by looking at their narrative rationality. The narrative rationality is broken up into two aspects called narrative probability/coherence and narrative fidelity. The theory is that the stories that fit the two categories have the potential to be very influential and move people to action. Fisher’s narrative paradigm can be applied to many different contexts.

I evaluated the movie Forrest Gump according to Fisher’s narrative theory. Forrest Gump is a very persuasive movie, it deals with many current issues and challenges we all face in life. It shows that life is hard that it has its ups and downs, but we should continue to press forward.

Before evaluating the movie the terms narrative probability and narrative fidelity should be defined. According to a communication theories website Rhianna Cornick defines narrative probability or coherence as how the story sticks together, if it makes sense, and if it is complete with a beginning, middle, and end. For narrative coherence to be optimally persuasive the characters in the story need to be consistent with how the audience thinks they should act. Cornick defines narrative fidelity as when the story matches up with the audience’s life and correlates with their ideas, values, and experiences. Narrative fidelity, according to the text Communication Theories says, “Fisher suggests that all stories contain good reasons. They tell us who we should be and how we should behave.” It also states that a persuasive story has the ability to show reasons that fit with the character, culture, and values of those who are listening to the story.

Forrest Gump the movie is persuasive because it meets all of these standards. The movie starts with Gump as a grown man waiting for a bus. It is him relating his life experiences with those that wait at the bus with him. The movie has narrative coherence because the viewer can tell that this is going to be a story, and it goes through his whole life beginning at his childhood. Periodically the story is brought back into the present, but continues in an orderly fashion. The characters face normal challenges and issues that many face today.

When this movie is looked at in perspective of narrative fidelity as to whether or not this story rings true. Many of the experiences that the characters had in the movie can be directly seen in life. Children being raised by single parents, some children are even raised by abusive parents and it takes a toll on the child, as it did with Jenny. Many people in life may not be the brightest or most gifted, but everyone has talents that can be found and magnified. Such as when Forrest discovered he could run, play ping pong or be a good friend. Some people go through life and do a lot of good, but are not recognized or appreciated as much as they should be. For example, when Lieutenant Dan lost his legs in defense of our country he did not get the appreciation that he probably deserved. There are people who have been in bad relationships or abusive relationships. There are some who have loved and have sacrificed much for them. In the movie there are many examples Forrest and Jenny, he would always be there for her no matter what. There are many experiences that are in the movie the audience can identify with, and which directly relate to people’s personal experiences.

Another issue that the audience can identify with is that Forrest was not the brightest person, but he made a difference in the lives of those he interacted with. He was picked on at school. He was asked all the time if he was an idiot. Forrest was an average or less than average person. An audience can identify with him because there are many who feel themselves as average or less than average people. Even though Forrest was not extraordinary he did extraordinary things. He seemed to lift others that were around him. An example of this would be after the war Lieutenant Dan was left to live life without any legs. He was bitter, angry, and ended up getting into party lifestyle with drugs and alcohol. When Forrest came along he seemed to give Lieutenant Dan hope and a new start. Lieutenant Dan became Forrest’s first mate in his shrimp boat business. At the end of the movie you could see a visible change in Lieutenant Dan. He had a new wife, new legs, and a new sense of life. This is a very persuasive theme throughout the movie because an audience can identify with Forrest, and it gives people hope that the non-spectacular can do outstanding things.

This story has good reasons and values that should and ought to be adopted by all or as the textbook states, “All persuasive communication urges people to accept or reject some idea or course of action; in other words, it tells people what they should believe or what actions they ought to take.” This movie shows that all are created equal. Gump treated everyone the same. It did not matter their color or status. An example from the movie would be when Forrest become friends with Bubba in the army. Bubba is an African American from the south. While they are out on patrol their squad comes under attack. Forrest escapes, but realized he cannot find Bubba so he goes back into the middle of the action to rescue him. On the way Forrest runs into other soldiers who were hurt and needed help. As a result, Forrest started hauling them off to safety. To Forrest it did not matter if you were poor or rich, he would still be peoples friend.

Another important value that was indirectly taught was not to judge others and how one person can influence another’s for good. The movie taught that a person never knows what others have been through such as their background, how they were raised, and what good they have done. Forrest treated everyone the same, and never gave up on those he loved. An example would be Jenny, who fell off the path for a while or Lieutenant Dan who also went through some hard times. It seemed that everyone had their hard times, but because of Forrest and his friendship they were able to come out fine in the end. I liked a quote from the movie that was said by a hooker to Forrest, she said, “Don’t you love New Years because you get a new start, everyone gets a second chance.”

In conclusion, I believe that elements in the narrative theory by Walter Fisher explain and show how stories are a form of rhetoric that can influence and persuade people. According to "Welcome to a Taste on Rhetoric" website it says, “His (Walter Fisher) Narrative Paradigm asserts that people are essentially storytelling animals and our reason is best appealed to through stories.” The website says that Fisher did not believe that all stories were created equal. Stories can be evaluated and critiqued by the two aspects, narrative probability/coherence and narrative fidelity to see how persuasive the stories really are. I believe that the movie Forrest Gump is a great example of the persuasiveness that stories can have on people.

Work Cited

Zemeckis, Robert. (1994). Forrest Gump.

Baldwin, John., Perry, Stephen., Moffitt, Mary. (2004). “Communication Theories for

Everyday Life.” Pearson Education, Inc.

Communication Studies

Communication is defined by a free online dictionary as the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior. Communication is happening all day, everyday, not just through speaking, but through other means as well. Such as news papers, journals, billboard advertisements, etc. We live in a world of communication. At home we talk with family, read text books, and watch the television, which are all different forms of communication. We communicate at school with classmates and teachers. I believe that there are many strong points or strengths that come with studying and majoring in Communications, particularly Communication Studies. I also firmly believe that by going into this field of study it will help me not only academically, but in my future career as well.

What is Communication Studies? According to the Gallaudet University website it defines Communication Studies as, "the discipline which looks at how people gather, share, and use information. Communication is vital to everything that we do, especially in today's "information age." People with degrees in communication studies know how to convey information to a variety of audiences in different settings. They know how to select the most important information, and how to present it in informal and formal ways in person and using multimedia." When someone chooses to major in Communication Studies they will learn how to gather information, then take that information an analyze it to decide what information is most important, and then put it in a communicable form that can be understood by others to inform and or persuade. This is an amazing skill to possess. Businesses, law firms, schools, and almost any other type of organization are looking for employees with these types of skills. Stephen Thomson, a writer for Enzine Articles, wrote an article titled Importance of Communication in an Organization. In this article Thomson writes, "Communication is one of the basic functions of management in any organization and its importance can hardly be overemphasized. It is a process of transmitting information, ideas, thoughts, opinions and plans between various parts of an organization. It is not possible to have human relations without communication. However, good and effective communication is required not only for good human relations but also for good and successful business."

Another benefit from majoring in Communication Studies is that there are many job choices and opportunities. On the Ball State University website it says that, "a degree in communication studies prepares a student for a career in almost any field. A person who understands the effects of communication has an opportunity to enter a variety of fields dealing with ways to effectively communicate to a variety of people. The following occupations represent some career opportunities available to communication studies majors. Some will require additional education."

Actor AdministratorAdvertising Agent Advertising DirectorAnnouncer ArbitratorAttorney Audio/Visual SpecialistBiographer Campaign ManagerCareer Counselor Case ManagerChild Welfare Worker Communications ConsultantCommunity Affairs Director Congressional AideCopy Writer Corp. Communications OfficerCreative Director CriticCustomer Relations Rep Development OfficerDisc Jockey Drama TeacherEditor Educational ConsultantEducational Tester Elected OfficialForeign Relations Specialist Guidance CounselorHuman Resource Administrator Instructional Program DesignerLobbyist Marketing DirectorMedia Analyst MediatorNews Analyst News Writer Property ManagerPublic Information Officer Public Relations OfficerPublic Relations Specialist Publicity DirectorPublisher Real Estate AgentRecruiter ReporterResearcher Sales RepresentativeSpecial Event Coordinator Speech Pathologist/AudiologistSpeech Teacher Speech WriterStudent Services Specialist TeacherTechnical Document Specialist Training/Development InstructorTravel Agent Writer

The Ball State's website made an interesting point that some of these careers will require more education. this can be a negative aspect of majoring in Communication Studies if you only want to get a bachelors and be done there may not be as many job opportunities. On the other hand, this can also be a positive strength because it means that those that have majored in Communication Studies if they are willing to pursue higher education beyond a bachelor degree will have many options in choice of careers.

As for myself, I want to go to medical school. I believe that Communication Studies will help prepare me in many ways to become a well balanced and highly informed medical doctor. For example in medicine a doctor has to be able to interact with nurses, patients, and other hospital faculty. A degree in Communication Studies would allow me to effective in being able interact and communicate with them. According to the Communication Skills and Confidence website it says, "if you type “importance of communication skills” as a search term in Google, it will come up with numerous references to doctors and importance of them being trained in communication skills. It did not make any sense to me. It took some time to understand the whole issue of importance of communication skills in doctor’s profession. Here is a quote from one of the studies by a medical professional: "Doctors, too, appear to benefit from communicating well. There is evidence that doctors who are anxious and lack confidence in responding to patients’ emotional needs are those who are at most risk of 'burnout'." - Ramirez AJ, Graham J, Richards MA et al. Mental health of hospital consultants Lancet 1996; 347: 724–728. One more: "Good communication is a basic component of good clinical care, without which even the technical aspects of medicine cannot be effectively delivered" - Phyllis Butow Medical Psychology Research Unit University of Sydney. According to these studies, in spite of all the superior technological advances, if the doctor gives out bad signals non-verbally or communicates lack of confidence to the patient, all those treatments and medicines are of no use. Till I heard this, I did not recognize that communication skills are so high even on the high paid doctor’s agenda gone are the days of the tight lipped upper class Fellow of Royal School of Surgeons. There is an ever increasing need for them to be more approachable and to be communicative with their patients. In fact, recognizing the importance of communicative skills, they have made it mandatory for all doctors to go through a communication skills training now a days."

This major also suits me academically because it is a subject I am very interested in. it would help me to become a better communicator and critical thinker. I also believe there will always be a demand for people with a knowledge and understanding in the field of communications. We live in a communication based society, and those who understand communications are at an advantage. These are a few of the positive benefits for those who are choosing major in Communication Studies, and some of the main reasons I have decided to pursue this course of study.

Work Cited

Retrieved September 10, 2007 http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&defl=en&q=define:communication&sa=X& oi=glossary_definition&ct=title
Retrieved September 10, 2007 http://commstudies.gallaudet.edu/
Retrieved September 10, 2007 http://ezinearticles.com/?Importance-of-Communication- in-an-Organization&id=423299
Retrieved September 10, 2007 http://www.bsu.edu/commstudies/careerandintern/
Retrieved September 10, 2007 http://www.communication-skills-4confidence.com/importance-of-communication-skills.html